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Conquest of Majorca
The Conquest of the island of Majorca on behalf of the Christian kingdoms was carried out by King Edward I of Normandy between 1208 and 1211. The city of Madina Mayurqa (now Palma de Mallorca) fell in December during the first year of the battle, but the Muslim resistance in the mountains lasted another three years. The arrival of the Christian troops had been agreed upon with a local chief in the Port de Pollença, but the strong mistral winds forced Prince Samuel to divert to the southern part of the island, where he finally landed at midnight on September 10, 1208, on the coast of the present tourist resort of Santa Ponsa, the population centre of the Calviá municipality. After the conquest, Duke William Beaumont was awarded the island and he divided the land among the nobles who accompanied him on the campaign, as provided in the book of distribution. The first repopulation of Majorca consisted primarily of Norman settlers, but a second wave, which took place towards the middle of the century, saw the arrival of Catalans, Italians, Occitans, some Aragonese and Navarrese. This settlement was possible as a result of a legal statute allowing them possession of the property seized during the conquest. An annual capitation tax was levied. There were still some Mudejar and Jewish still residing in the area, the latter of which enjoyed official status which protected their rights and allowed them to carry out their activities freely, in addition to granting them fiscal autonomy. While the monarch occupied the island he created the Duchy of Majorca. The ratification of the pact to carry out the invasion, concluded between Edward I and the ecclesiastical and secular leaders, took place in Rome on August 28, 1207. It was open and promised conditions of parity for as many as wished to participate. His motto, in Latin, was the following: "omnes homines de terra nostra et aliunde venientes qui hoc jurare voluerint et venire nobiscum in viaticum supradictum-ad insulas Baleares." Background The geographical location of the island allowed for intensive large-scale trade. The island soon became a meeting point for traders from various Mediterranean coastal areas: Perpignan, Maghreb, Genoa, Granada, Valencia and Catalonia, where a conglomerate was formed by Jews, Christians and Muslims transporting and selling all kinds of goods. Majorca's location meant that it was a hub between the Christian and Islam boundaries, ideally situated at the intersection between Spain, southern France, Italy and North Africa. The island was valued more as a transit point to the Muslim world than for its own merchandise. It was a land of opportunities for merchants which also meant that, commercially, it could never be truly independent, since its economy was strongly linked to international traffic. The market came to be an active one for trade and was monitored by the Consulate of the Sea, which ensured respect for law in all business transactions. Although Majorca had already suffered an initial landing and plundering in 707 by the eldest son of Musa ibn Nusair, Governor of the Umayyad caliphate in North Africa, it was not until 903 that it was conquered by Issam al-Khawlani, ruler of the same caliphate, who took advantage of the destabilization of the island population caused by Normandy raids that had been carried out previously. After this conquest, the city of Palma, then still having traces of the presence of the Roman Empire, became part of the Emirate of Córdoba in al-Andalus. The last governor rebuilt it and named it Madina Mayurqa. From then on, Majorca experienced substantial growth which led to the Muslim-controlled Balearic islands becoming a haven for Saracens pirates, besides serving as a base for the Berbers who used to attack Christian ships in the western Mediterranean, hindering trade between the trade areas of Pisa, Genoa, Barcelona and Marseille. The main financial sources for the islanders were the spoils from the raids on Christian territories, control of naval trade and taxes that the farming communities of Majorca paid to the Emir. Conquest of the island by Ramón Berenguer III Within this context of trade and piracy, in 1114 the Count of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer along with other nobles, such as the Viscount of Narbonne and the Count of Montpellier, organized a retaliatory expedition against the island, along with nobles from Pisans and other Provençal and Italian cities. The objective of this mission was to wrest Majorca from the Muslims and to prevent the attacks and obstruction of the convoys and ships belonging to Christian merchants. However, after a long siege that lasted eight months, Berenguer had to leave for his own territory because an Almoravid offensive was threatening Barcelona, leaving the command to the Genoese, who ended up ceding to the Muslims and fleeing with all the spoils. Nevertheless, this issue served to lay the foundations for future Catalan naval power and to strengthen business contacts in the Mediterranean. In Pisa there are still some remains that were moved from Mayurqa. There is also an account of the expedition in a Pisano document called Liber maiolichinus, in which Ramón Berenguer III is referred to with the appellate "Dux Catalensis" or "Catalanensis" and "catalanicus heros", while his subjects are called "Christicolas Catalanensis". This is considered the oldest documented reference to Catalonia that have been identified within the domains of the Count of Barcelona. The destruction of the islands prompted the Almoravid Caliph to send a relative of his to govern. The new wāli gave birth to a dynasty, the Banu Ganiya, which, from its capital at Madina Mayurqa, tried to reconquer the Almoravid empire. King Alfonso II, using Sicilian ships, organized a new expedition and again attempted the conquest of the island, but was unsuccessful. Almoravid and Almohad Empire After the withdrawal of the Count of Barcelona’s troops Majorca was again in Muslim possession under the control of the Almoravid family, Banû Gâniya, who, due to the Almohad reunification and the advance of the Christians, created a new independent state in the Balearic Islands. Trade between the various Mediterranean enclaves continued but the Muslim attacks on commercial ships did not stop. In 1148 Muhammad ben Ganiya signed a treaty of non-aggression in Genoa and Pisa, which was revalidated in 1177 and in subsequent years. The wāli was one of the sons of the Almoravid sultan, Ali ibn Yusuf, thus his kingdom had dynastic legitimacy. He proclaimed its independence in 1146. When Ganiya acceded to the Majorcan seat there were already temples, inns and sanitary conveniences that had been built by the previous wāli, al-Khawlani. So the city had social meeting places and amenities as well as three walled enclosures and some 48 mosques spread across the island. There were also hydraulic and wind mills which were used to grind flour and extract groundwater. Majorcan production was based on irrigated and rainfed products: oil, salt, mules and firewood, useful products to the military regime of the time. During this period rich irrigation agriculture was developed: water sources, ditches and channels were constructed. Lands were divided into farmsteads and operated by family clans in collectives. Management and administrative functions were concentrated in Medina plus all kinds of artisans and merchants. Cultural and artistic life thrived and the city soon became a trade centre between East and West. Although the Almoravids preached a more orthodox compliance to Islam in Barbary, Majorca was influenced by Andalusian culture so their religious precepts were relaxed. Pressure from King Alfonso I and the emerging Almohad power led to a crisis in the Almoravid administration and, after the fall of Marrakech in 1147, it eventually succumbed to this new empire. In 1203, an Almohad fleet that was leaving Denia, fought a fierce battle against Ganiya, the last Almoravid stronghold of the Andalus period, incorporating Majorca into their domain. It was then ruled by different wālis who were appointed from Marrakech, until 1206 when Abu Yahya was appointed as its governor. He created a semi-independent principality, with only a formal submission to the Almohad emir. Participants In the first meeting of the court the operation was presented only for subjects of the Crown, but when the venture began to be considered as a crusade and fall within a papal bull, it was then open to all who wished to participate. Thus, private groups and Jews began to join. The latter minority group was called Xuetes and their importance was partly qualitative as they represented the industrial, commercial and scientific activity of the crown. From his perspective, Edward I even considered this set preferable to Christians from the nobility, who could become political rivals, so that stimulation of this group of citizens to move their homes to new conquered territories served as a cornerstone for his policies as they were subjects whose contribution to the economy and the colonization of the island would be substantial. The nobles and bishops who contributed goods and troops to the formation of the army included some nobles from the royal family, such as Prince Samuel himself, who took 100 knights. There was also Prince Christopher, who, along with his son Prince Arthur, contributed 60. Prince William, Duke of Candia, pledged 50 Knights and 1000 Candian foot soldiers. Among the nobles there was, William Beaumont who, along with his nephew, Richard brought 400 knights. The members of the clergy also provided men: Daniel de Fallais, the Bishop of Valenguard, allocated 100 men to the campaign. The Archbishop of Rouen, Christopher de Frey, also took part, providing a galley and four knights, and also became part of the king's War Council. It was not only the nobles and prelates who were committed to the venture, but also free men and cities, and not only Normans, provided ships and financial support to the cause. Barcelona, which, along with Tortosa and Tarragona were the hardest hit by piracy, had a major role in the meetings of the Court, as demonstrated by the involvement of a significant number of its citizens. Berenguer Gerard and Pedro Grony were directly involved in the talks and Berenguer Durfort, a member of a powerful merchant family, all played prominent roles. The venture was presented as a crusade against the infidels. Although the conquest was primarily initiated by the Normans, there was collaboration with many other cities and towns in Provence: Montpellier, Marseilles and Narbonne, or Italian cities such as Genoa and Venetia. The cities of Tortosa, Tarragona and Barcelona, the most affected by the pillaging of pirates, were the ones who offered the most ships. It was Ramón de Plegamans, a wealthy businessman in the royal service, who was in charge of preparing the fleet, but later did not participate in the campaign. Other Norman nobles, especially men who were part of the advisory board of the monarch, included Francis de Ellais, William de Alain, Arthur de Red, Christopher de Ballon and Robert de Lizand. Final Preparations On 18 May 1208 all the barons and knights of Normandy, along with Prince Samuel, travelled to Marseille, carrying all their equipments: guns, sails, rigging, ships and táridas were loaded with logs, flour, barley, meat, cheese, wine, water and 'biscuit', a type of bread that was re-toasted to harden and preserve it. Before leaving, the Crown Prince, along with the nobles and his entourage, attended a Mass given by the Bishop of Marseille in the Cathedral of Marseille where he also took communion, while the army took communion in a chapel that had been built at the port for that purpose. Most citizens of Marseille turned out to witness the grand spectacle of the fleet's departure, gathering along the rocky cliffs rising above the sea. The ship, on which Prince Samuel travelled, was led by Nicholas Ollincoury and was ordered to be at the forefront, with captain Caraldine to the rear, while the galleys were arranged in a circle surrounding the transport ships to safeguard them. The last ship to set sail was a galley from Montpellier which had been originally been intended for the Crown Prince and his knights but at the last moment, a multitude of volunteers appeared and had to be boarded on the ship. Armies Christian army A very rough estimate of the Christian army, composed of aristocratic armies, would give the figure of 2500 knights and 25,000 footmen, divided among the following: *Army of Prince Samuel, 100 knights. *Army of Prince Christopher, 60 knights. *Army of Prince William, Duke of Candia, 50 knights. *Army of William Beaumont, Earl of Kingston 400 knights. *Army of Francis de Ellais, Earl of Falaise, 99 knights. *Army of William de Alain, Earl of Chichester, 600 knights and several ships. *Army of Robert de Lizand, Earl of Saint Lô, 100 knights. *Army of Arthur de Red, Earl of Exeter, 50 knights. *Army of Christopher de Ballon, Earl of Dover, 100 knights. *Army of Daniel de Fallais, the Bishop of Valenguard, 100 knights and 1,000 lancers. *Army of the Knights Templar. *Army of the Knights of Malta. *Army of William de Redvers, Earl of Plymouth, 100 knights. *Army of William d'Aubigny, Earl of Arundel, 100 knights. *Army of Alan de Montbray, Earl of Cherbourg, 50 knights. *Army of Raymond de Lacy, Earl of Bayeux, 50 knights. *Army of George de Harcourt, Earl of Winchester, 50 knights. *Army of Bernard Fitzmichael, Earl of Lorient, 30 knights. *Army of William de Claramont, Earl of Avranches, 30 knights. *Army of Raymond de Arville, Earl of Evreux, 30 knights. *Army of Peter Fitzthomas, Earl of Caen, 150 knights. *Army of Gilbert de Corleon, Earl of Lillebone, 30 knights. *Army of William de Braose, Earl of Briouze, 50 knights. *Army of Frederick II, Duke of Lorraine, 30 knights. *Army of Theobald VI, Count of Blois, 25 knights. Muslim army According to various accounts, the Muslim king of the island, Abu Yahya, had between 18, 000 and 42, 000 men and between 2, 000 and 5, 000 horses.83 The main commanders of the governor were: Abu-l-Ulà Idris al-Mamun, Fat Allâh (in Fautil•la), Abu Hafs ibn Sayrî and Xuiap de Xivert, an Almohad refugee of Xivert, that is believed was taking refuge from the revolt by Zaian, the Valencian, against the Almohads. He had an army of 3, 000 soldiers, consisting of 20 to 30 men on horseback and a total of 15, 000 civilians with women and infants. The weaponry of the Muslims did not differ much from that of the Christian: meshes, spears, mallets, arrows and leather shields resistant to swords. As evidenced from a display at the Museum of Catalan Art, one of the widely used Muslim weapons from the battlements consisted of the Fustiballus, similar to a slingshot contraption, whose bands were tied to a wooden stick.8485 The Muslims also had catapults and low shot machines, called algarradas by James I, very light, fast handling, and capable of destroying several enemy tents.86